The Historical Division of Cyprus

Historical Context of Cyprus

The island of Cyprus, strategically located in the Eastern Mediterranean, has a long and complex history shaped by a myriad of cultures and civilizations. This rich historical tapestry, woven from threads of ancient civilizations, Byzantine and Ottoman influences, and British colonial rule, provides essential context for understanding the island's present-day division. Each phase of its history has left indelible marks on the island’s identity, demographics, and political landscape, which are crucial for comprehending the current situation in Cyprus.

Ancient Civilizations and Early Settlements

Cyprus's history can be traced back to the Neolithic period around 10,000 BC, with evidence of early settlements found in sites like Choirokoitia. These early inhabitants engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, setting the stage for later civilizations. By the Bronze Age, around 2500 BC, Cyprus became an essential hub for trade, connecting the Aegean, Anatolian, and Levantine cultures. The island was rich in natural resources, particularly copper, which attracted various settlers and traders.

During this period, the island saw the rise of city-kingdoms such as Salamis, Paphos, and Kourion. These city-states flourished, contributing significantly to the cultural and political landscape. The influence of Mycenaean Greeks became prominent, leading to the establishment of Greek as the dominant language and Hellenistic culture. The arrival of Phoenicians in the 9th century BC further diversified the island's cultural milieu, as they brought with them their own trade networks and religious practices.

Cyprus was also subject to various foreign powers, including the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians, each leaving their mark. The island’s strategic location made it a contested territory, as it served as a crucial maritime route for these ancient empires. The cultural exchanges during this time laid the groundwork for a unique Cypriot identity that would continue to evolve through subsequent centuries.

Byzantine and Ottoman Influence

The transition to the Byzantine era in the 4th century AD marked a significant shift in Cyprus's historical trajectory. Following the division of the Roman Empire, Cyprus became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire. This period was characterized by the spread of Christianity, with the establishment of churches and monasteries, which played a crucial role in shaping the island's religious and cultural identity. The iconic Church of Saint Lazarus in Larnaca is a testament to this era, commemorating the arrival of Christianity in Cyprus.

However, Cyprus was not immune to conflict. The island faced invasions from various forces, including Arabs and Crusaders, leading to a significant decline in Byzantine influence by the late Middle Ages. The island eventually fell under the control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and later the Lusignan dynasty, which ruled from 1192 to 1489. This period saw the construction of numerous castles and fortifications, reflecting the tumultuous nature of the times.

The Ottoman Empire's conquest of Cyprus in 1571 introduced a new era marked by significant demographic and cultural changes. The Ottomans implemented administrative reforms and established a system that allowed for a degree of religious autonomy for the Christian population. This arrangement solidified the presence of both Turkish and Greek communities on the island, laying the foundation for future ethnic tensions. Under Ottoman rule, Cyprus remained relatively stable, but the island's strategic importance continued to attract attention from European powers, leading to further complexities in its governance.

British Colonial Rule

The late 19th century marked the beginning of British involvement in Cyprus, initially as an administrative territory following the decline of the Ottoman Empire. In 1878, the British took control of the island under the Cyprus Convention, which allowed them to administer it while nominally remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. This arrangement laid the groundwork for significant changes in governance, infrastructure, and the economy of Cyprus.

British rule brought modernization to the island, with improvements in education, healthcare, and transportation. However, it also exacerbated tensions between the Greek and Turkish communities. The rise of Greek nationalism and the desire for Enosis, or union with Greece, became increasingly pronounced, particularly after World War I when Cyprus was formally annexed by Britain in 1925. The British colonial administration faced challenges in managing these growing nationalist sentiments, leading to uprisings and demands for self-determination from the Greek Cypriots.

In contrast, Turkish Cypriots often felt marginalized under British rule, as the administration favored Greek Cypriots in various aspects of governance and economic opportunities. This favoritism deepened divisions and set the stage for the eventual conflict that would arise in the 20th century. The socio-political landscape of Cyprus continued to evolve, foreshadowing the turbulent events that would follow as the island approached independence.

Division of Cyprus: Key Events and Factors

The division of Cyprus is one of the most complex and enduring geopolitical issues in the Mediterranean, rooted in a multifaceted history of ethnic tension, colonial legacies, and international diplomacy. The island, strategically located between Europe, Asia, and Africa, has been shaped by various civilizations and has seen significant political developments, particularly in the 20th century. The division can be traced back to key events that led to the establishment of two distinct entities: the Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a self-declared state recognized only by Turkey. This section will explore the independence of Cyprus in 1960, the Turkish invasion in 1974, and the international responses to these events, shedding light on the factors that have contributed to the ongoing division.

The Independence of Cyprus in 1960

The journey towards Cypriot independence began in the mid-20th century when increasing nationalistic sentiments among the Greek Cypriots clashed with the interests of the Turkish Cypriots and the colonial rule of Britain. The struggle for independence was marked by a series of political and social upheavals fueled by the desire for enosis, or union with Greece, among Greek Cypriots. This desire was met with resistance from the Turkish Cypriot minority, who feared marginalization and loss of their rights in an independent state dominated by the Greek Cypriots.

In 1955, the EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston), a nationalist organization, launched an armed struggle against British colonial rule. The British responded with military force, leading to a cycle of violence and repression. By the late 1950s, it became clear that maintaining control over Cyprus was untenable for Britain, especially in the context of decolonization movements sweeping across Africa and Asia.

The Zurich and London Agreements were pivotal in the transition to independence. In 1959, representatives from Greece, Turkey, and the United Kingdom negotiated a settlement that would lead to Cyprus's independence. The agreements established the Republic of Cyprus as a bi-communal state, ensuring representation for both Greek and Turkish Cypriots in government, while also allocating British military bases on the island.

The Constitution of 1960 established a complex power-sharing arrangement, with a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, and a Council of Ministers consisting of six Greek Cypriots and three Turkish Cypriots. However, these provisions proved challenging to implement effectively, as deep-seated ethnic divisions persisted. The power-sharing framework, intended to create stability, instead sowed the seeds of discontent as both communities struggled to coexist within the confines of the newly established state. This precarious situation laid the groundwork for future conflicts.

The 1974 Turkish Invasion

The tensions that simmered in the years following independence erupted in violence in July 1974, when a coup d'état orchestrated by the Greek military junta aimed at achieving enosis led to the ousting of President Makarios III, a pro-independence leader. The coup alarmed Turkey, which viewed it as a direct threat to the Turkish Cypriot community. In response, Turkey launched a military intervention, citing its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee, which allowed for action to protect the Turkish Cypriots.

The result was a swift and brutal invasion that resulted in the occupation of approximately 37% of the island by Turkish forces. The invasion was marked by significant loss of life, displacement, and human rights violations, including ethnic cleansing and the destruction of properties. This period saw the forced migration of thousands of Greek Cypriots from the north to the south, and vice versa for the Turkish Cypriots.

The outcome of the invasion was the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) in 1983, a self-declared state that remains unrecognized by the international community, except for Turkey. The TRNC operated under a separate political and economic system, effectively solidifying the division of the island. This division has had profound implications for the identity and political landscape of both communities, fostering a sense of separation that continues to this day.

International Responses and Peace Efforts

The international community reacted with concern to the events in Cyprus, particularly the 1974 invasion. The United Nations promptly intervened, establishing the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) to prevent further hostilities and maintain a buffer zone between the two communities. The UN's involvement underscored the international dimension of the conflict, as it sought to mediate a peaceful resolution to the crisis.

Numerous attempts at negotiation and peace talks have been made over the years, but a lasting solution has remained elusive. Key initiatives include the intercommunal talks facilitated by the UN, the Annan Plan proposed in 2004, and various initiatives led by different actors, including the European Union and the United States. The Annan Plan, aimed at reunifying the island through a federal structure, was put to a referendum but ultimately rejected by the Greek Cypriots, reflecting the deep-rooted fears and mistrust that persisted between the communities.

Despite the challenges, there have been moments of hope, such as the opening of checkpoints in 2003 that allowed for greater movement between the two sides. These developments fostered a sense of shared humanity and mutual understanding, albeit within a complex political context. However, the underlying issues of property rights, territorial adjustments, and security guarantees remain contentious points in any potential peace negotiations.

The European Union's role has also been significant, particularly after the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU in 2004. The EU has sought to promote reconciliation and cooperation between the two communities, but the division continues to pose obstacles to the island's full integration into the EU framework.

Key factors influencing the ongoing division of Cyprus include:

• Ethnic Nationalism: Deep-rooted feelings of nationalism have fueled tensions and prevented meaningful dialogue.
• Political Disparities: The power-sharing arrangement established in 1960 has been largely ineffective in addressing the needs and concerns of both communities.
• External Influences: The interests of Greece and Turkey, as well as the broader geopolitical context, have complicated the search for a resolution.
• International Mediation: While the UN and other international actors have facilitated dialogue, their efforts have often been hampered by diverging interests.

As Cyprus continues to navigate the challenges of division, the prospects for reunification remain uncertain. The interplay of historical grievances, political realities, and international dynamics will shape the future of this island nation, as both Greek and Turkish Cypriots strive to find a path toward coexistence and reconciliation.

Current Implications of the Division

The division of Cyprus, which has persisted since 1974, has profound implications for the island's political dynamics, socioeconomic conditions, and the prospects for reunification. This division reflects not only historical grievances but also contemporary challenges faced by both Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. Understanding these implications requires an exploration of the political landscape, the socioeconomic effects on communities, and the potential future relations between the two sides.

Political Landscape and Governance

The political landscape of Cyprus is intricately shaped by its division. Following the Turkish invasion in 1974, the island was effectively split into two distinct entities: the Republic of Cyprus, recognized internationally and predominantly inhabited by Greek Cypriots, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is only recognized by Turkey. This division has led to a unique governance structure in both regions, which has constantly evolved in response to domestic and international pressures.

In the Republic of Cyprus, the government operates as a presidential republic, where the president is elected directly by the public. The political system is characterized by a multiparty system, with significant political parties representing various interests, including the conservative, left-wing, and centrist factions. The current political discourse is heavily influenced by the long-standing issue of reunification, with leaders often facing pressure to navigate both national aspirations and international diplomacy. The political leadership has, at times, shown willingness to engage in negotiations with Turkish Cypriot leaders, but progress has been slow and fraught with complications.

In contrast, the governance of Northern Cyprus is marked by its isolation and reliance on Turkey for political and economic support. The TRNC has its own parliamentary system, but its legitimacy is questioned globally, leading to significant limitations in its international relations. This isolation has resulted in a political environment that is heavily influenced by Turkish policies and interests. The Turkish Cypriot leadership often finds itself in a delicate position, balancing the demands of its populace for greater recognition and autonomy against the realities of its dependence on Turkey.

The division has also resulted in a complex relationship between the two communities. While there have been attempts at dialogue and cooperation, historical mistrust continues to hinder the political process. Initiatives such as the bi-communal technical committees established in 2008 have aimed to address common issues such as health and education, but these efforts often face challenges due to the overarching political context. The United Nations has maintained a peacekeeping force in Cyprus since 1964, acting as a stabilizing presence but also highlighting the ongoing tensions and unresolved nature of the conflict.

Socioeconomic Effects on Cypriot Communities

The socioeconomic ramifications of the division are significant and multifaceted, affecting various aspects of life for both Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The separation has led to divergent economic pathways, with the Republic of Cyprus generally experiencing greater economic stability and growth compared to the TRNC, which struggles with economic challenges exacerbated by its political isolation.

In the Republic of Cyprus, the economy has benefited from its European Union membership, which it joined in 2004. This membership has facilitated access to European markets and funding, contributing to sectors such as tourism, finance, and real estate. The economy has shown resilience, bouncing back from the financial crisis of 2013, during which the banking sector faced severe challenges and required international bailouts. Currently, the economy is characterized by a focus on tourism, services, and a growing tech sector, allowing for a relatively high standard of living for many Greek Cypriots.

On the other hand, the TRNC's economy is heavily reliant on Turkey for financial support, infrastructure development, and trade. The lack of international recognition limits its ability to engage in global markets, leading to a reliance on informal trade channels and tourism from Turkey. The economy of Northern Cyprus faces high unemployment rates and limited job opportunities, resulting in a significant portion of the population seeking work abroad. This economic disparity has contributed to social tensions and a sense of disenfranchisement among Turkish Cypriots, many of whom feel that their potential is stifled by the political situation.

Moreover, the division has led to significant demographic changes, with many families being separated across the divide. The displacement of communities during and after the conflict has resulted in cultural losses and altered social structures. While there have been efforts to foster intercommunal relationships and joint initiatives, the socioeconomic divide often reinforces existing prejudices and limits meaningful interaction between the two communities.

Prospects for Reunification and Future Relations

The prospects for reunification remain uncertain, influenced by various factors, including political will, external pressures, and the evolving geopolitical landscape in the Eastern Mediterranean. Historically, numerous attempts have been made to negotiate a settlement, including the Annan Plan in 2004, which proposed a comprehensive framework for reunification. However, this plan ultimately failed when it was rejected by the Greek Cypriot community in a referendum, highlighting the deep-rooted divisions and differing aspirations between the two sides.

Recent developments, including shifts in political leadership and changing regional dynamics, suggest that there may be opportunities for renewed dialogue. The discovery of offshore natural gas reserves has added a layer of complexity to the situation, as both communities seek to assert their rights over these resources. The involvement of external actors, such as the European Union and the United Nations, continues to play a crucial role in facilitating discussions and promoting peace initiatives.

While there is a desire for reunification among segments of both communities, there are also significant challenges to overcome. Issues related to property rights, security arrangements, and the political status of the Turkish Cypriot community remain contentious points that require careful negotiation. Moreover, the generational divide, with younger Cypriots often less engaged in the historical grievances of their parents, presents both challenges and opportunities for building a more constructive dialogue.

In conclusion, the current implications of the division of Cyprus are complex and deeply intertwined with the island's historical context. The political landscape reflects ongoing tensions and the struggle for recognition and governance, while the socioeconomic effects highlight disparities and challenges faced by both communities. The prospects for reunification remain uncertain, shaped by both internal dynamics and external influences. As Cyprus navigates its future, the hope for a peaceful resolution remains a shared aspiration among many residents, emphasizing the need for dialogue, understanding, and cooperation.